Epedemic Intro: Kierra Stearns

According to the American Association of Pediatrics "Binge drinking is the most common pattern of alcohol consumption among high school youth who drink alcohol and is strongly associated with a wide range of other health risk behaviors"( Smith, Naimi, et al 1 ). Binge drinking can be defined as drinking five or more drinks during one occasion ( Smith, Naimi, et al 1 ). Binge drinking is absurd because it lowers your quality of health. Most teens and young college students don't even know that five or more drinks is considered binge drinking because it's so common in today's society, overall binge drinking is a maximizing epidemic. 

SMALLPOX of 1519 by Colby Harbuck

SMALLPOX OF 1519

            Ever noticed your face breaking out really bad and really suddenly? Your mom probably lectured you on washing your face better or not eating so many sweets. The next few days your arms get these red spots too and once again it’s “your fault for not taking care of your body.” But have no fear, it’s not your fault at all! Instead you've the lucky winner of this great, powerful, and deadly disease: Smallpox! Now maybe you didn't know, but you've actually already had this prestigious epidemic for close to 5 days(Dixon)! In less than a week those pimples are going to turn into very large scabs. If they eventually fall off then it’s ok (CDC)! But have no fear, if they don’t, you have at least three more weeks to live! You’ve always wanted to go to Hawaii right?

            Speaking of Smallpox, I once had a personal experience with this horrible epidemic. It all started for her that cold December day. It was the last day before Christmas break was to start and who really pays attention to the teacher on that day? Poor old Mrs. Wright was trying so hard to keep her students entertained: “It was 1518. Hernando Cortez was a thriving, but young conquistador. He was very courageous and successful, but feared by many with a lot of money who could give him financial backing in order to send him to new lands(Kukaswadia, Atif). In his past, Cortez had taken more than his fair share of his findings and owed numerous people. At this point he was trying to arrange his biggest haul of them all. He had a boat, with nearly 300 people, horses, and supplies ready to set sail to the America’s. Suddenly, he was convicted of many crimes and was going to be thrown in jail or sent to Spain(History.com Staff). He had to act quickly, and without the King’s permission he quickly gathered up his few things and set sail.  

        He was chased by several of the king’s officials, but once they hit open sea there was no catching them. Unfortunately for over 20 million Aztecs living happily in Mexico City, Cortez was coming, with soldiers, guns, and one more secret weapon even he didn't know he possessed… Germs…       Eww germs(Kukaswadia, A)!!”        

            Just stop Mrs. Wright. I was desperately praying that the old lady would just shut up and let us all sleep.

            “No, not like that,” Mrs. Wright continued. “These aren't the germs you get from a girl when you are in Kindergarten. These germs were dangerous. And, it wasn't your average flu germs either. No, these germs were VERY potent. It was as if the conquistadors had gotten a mad scientist to create an almost toxic smog to release over the city, similar to what happens in hero/villain movies, but in reality they had done nothing but show up. The Aztecs themselves killed themselves by spreading the disease. All could have been stopped if they had kept the sick isolated from the healthy population(Finner). The Spanish’s appearance alone brought about the death of over 20 million people(AZTEC-HISTORY.COM Authors). Talk about an appearance.”

            Wow, now this is a super boring. Honestly, who even cares about this stuff? Then, suddenly, I drifted off into a quite nice nap, one that everyone seems to take in their average high school history classes…

            “Commander, your troops await your orders. We need them now! You know who is coming. We must prepare immediately!”

             Pause. Now, lets all think for a minute. What would you do if suddenly you woke up, has crazy markings all over your body, and someone called you “commander”? Probably think you're dreaming, right? See, that is what is supposed to happen, and maybe I thought that for a few seconds, but being called “Commander” took over really fast. So much power with that one word. This was going to be totally awesome!

            Ok, resume back to story. Immediately, I knew I had to figure some really significant facts out: who is this person that is coming, why am I here, and, lastly, but most importantly, what are the chances I can make these people do the whip and nae nae?

            Now, to save you from the boring part of me finding out all of those things, I will skip forward a few weeks to after Hernando Cortez (totally not the person we were expecting) showed up. Oh, and, by the way, I totally taught them how to do the whip and nae nae. I just so happened to be the commander of the entire Aztec army. When I say jump, they ask how high.

            We have been under siege from this strange group of people for three weeks now. All seven of my wives have full confidence in my army’s ability to defeat these peoples who come from far away. Yes, they have many new weapons of destruction but we have the advantage of numbers.

            Taylor, one of our brightest doctors, who did I mention is also the most beautiful girl in our tribe, which I plan to make my wife one day, has made me aware that many of my uninjured troops have fallen ill. But, this is no problem for us. We still have thousands of people. And, luckily, we have so many new medical procedures to help these sickened people.

              The first thing we will do is parade the sick around town on the first night of the full moon. One of our traditions to help the sick is to get every single healthy person to kiss the sick. We do this to share our health, which the great god Apollo has given us. After that, we will invite them to stay with us in our homes. We shall nurse them back to health!

            As you can tell, I have learned a great deal of information in these last three weeks about the Aztecs. At first, I thought that the idea of kissing the sick was a bad idea. Mrs. Wright had said something about keeping the sick in isolation or something, but, honestly, I wasn't really paying attention anyway, so I am not sure. Was she talking about the Aztecs? Quite honestly, she could have been talking about some people in Alaska, but how the heck am I supposed to know? I was too busy thinking about the cute girl I was going to get to see in sixth period.

            As the weeks went on, many more of us got sick. Even the beautiful and genius Taylor couldn't figure out what was going wrong. The most perplexing thing was none of the Spanish people seemed to get sick. Many of my friends seemed to believe they had brought a god with them to keep them safe. A god that was much more powerful than our Apollo. The attacks from them became fewer and fewer. We had to retreat from our lands because we did not have enough people in order to stay. The Spanish got exactly what they were wanting, and they didn't have to do anything. How could this be happening? None of them were as fierce or brave as my soldiers were. They did their killing with these hard, loud devices. Cowards, I say! My soldiers fought with their hand like real mean do!

            We continued this trend for nearly a year. At this point, we realized this disease, which had killed 75% of our tribe, was due to the Spanish. They had definitely brought dark magic with them. They had killed our god, Apollo. No matter how many people we sacrificed, we received no response from him. That was a very sad day for my tribe when we learned of his assassination. Soon, the Spanish would take everything from us, and we would all die…

            Unfortunately, I woke up, and realized I was back in Mrs. Wright’s class. And, dang, I still have thirteen more minutes in this prison!

            “And remember people, if there is a break out of a disease, ALWAYS keeps the sick isolated.”

            I began to think about my dream. Crap, I thought. I was a horrible commander. I should have known it was silly to go around having everyone kiss the sick bodies. I quickly realized the only possible solution to this epidemic, at that time in 1519, was isolation. There was no such thing as medication back then. Ok, yes, they drank those weird blood and fruit and water mixtures and called it medicine, but in reality, they had no medical technology at all.

            But how possible would have it been to keep those people isolated? The first problem would be where would have the sick gone? And, they would have had to agree to uproot themselves from their lives, leaving everything behind. Then, what about figuring out how they would all go to the same spot. The iPhone is still 500 years away from being invented, and I doubt people had their own GPS back then. Next, they would have to find a way to determine who was actually sick with the epidemic and who was just feeling under the weather. They would have to know immediately in order to get them out of town before others got sick.  And then the huge pressing issue: they are being invaded by Spanish soldiers. If everyone left to go into isolation, who would be left to protect their lands?

            With these problems, and other unnamed and unknown problems in avoiding this disease spread, it is very unlikely that there was a solution to this mass killing. Had this happened in today’s world, there is a possibility that it could have been stopped, or it could have been much, much worse. There are simply too many variables to know for sure.

            Next, for me, came English class.That old man, Mr. Rangel, was ranting on and on about some person named Camus. I realized that Camus believed no one is really truly living(Simpson). They all just go about their lives, not noticing anything is happening until something catastrophic happens. Then, when that big event occurs, everyone freaks out. But still, at this point, they believe someone else needs to take action. Until it is to the point of no return do they truly wake up and realize what is going on in their lives.

            This can be said true about the Aztecs. They were living their lives, unaware of the death curse that was headed their way. They even celebrated those people as a god because that is what they believed him to be. It was not until people began to die did they realize something was wrong. And, at first, they believed it to only be a small sickness that would go away by kissing each other to share their health. Then as things got out of hand, even the doctors had no idea what to do. Their methods were unable to help them. There was nothing they could do.

             Today’s society must learn from this. It cannot go throughout its life being unprepared for what is to come. There is no way to tell if the next Swine flu is coming. When it appears, there will be no time to scramble to make a serum to cure everyone. Multiple events in history has shown us that no cure to any disease can be whipped up in the matter of days. People complain about their face breaking out, just imagine the massive uproar if people’s faces broke out and then they died from smallpox 2.0. This is why we must heed Camus’ advice. We must wake up! Prepare! And lead ourselves into a more prepared life!

           

                                                                        Works Cited

AZTEC-HISTORY.COM Authors. "The Fall of the Aztec Empire." The Fall of the Aztec Empire. N.p., 2006. Web. 28 Apr. 2016. <http://www.aztec-history.com/fall-of-the-aztec-empire.html>.

CDC. "Smallpox Vaccine: What You Need to Know." CDC Smallpox. 15 Nov. 2003. Web. 23 Feb. 2016. <http://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/smallpox/vaccination/needtoknow.asp>.

Dixon, C.W. "Smallpox. - CAB Direct." Smallpox. - CAB Direct. Web. 18 Feb. 2016. <http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts19622702588.html;jsessionid=FB981E12809E D3749232F2131158D845>.

Finner, F. "Smallpox and Its Eradicationcontinued. - CAB Direct." Smallpox and Its Eradicationcontinued. - CAB Direct. Web. 18 Feb. 2016. <http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/19882049083.html>.

History.com Staff. "Aztecs." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2009. Web. 28 Apr. 2016. <http://www.history.com/topics/aztecs>.

Kukaswadia, A. (2013, July 30). What Killed The Aztecs? A Researcher Probes Role of 16th Century Megadrought | Public Health. Retrieved March 21, 2016, from http://blogs.plos.org/publichealth/2013/07/30/guest-post-what-killed-the-aztecs/

Kukaswadia, Atif. "What Killed The Aztecs? A Researcher Probes Role of 16th Century Megadrought | Public Health." Public Health. N.p., July 2013. Web. 28 Apr. 2016.   (Updated)

Simpson, David. "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. N.p., 2006. Web. 28 Apr. 2016. <http://www.iep.utm.edu/camus/>.

The Black Death by Jonathon Tull (Example Essay)

Introduction

       A sudden itch on your arm reveals a red, rosy ring. Your heart beats quickly because it’s a symptom of the most deadly disease of the Fourteenth Century—the Black Death. The Bubonic Plague killed “1.5 million people out of an estimated 4.0 million people” in Medieval England, and it’s about to claim it’s next victim—you (“The Black Death of 1348 to 1350”). There’s no way to avoid the horrific symptoms that will follow: lumps in the armpits or groin, decaying black spots on 

parts of the body, chills, fever, excruciating pain, and within three days death (Boccaccio 1). Where did you contract the disease—from breathing fowl air of friends who were infected, from close contact with farm animals, or from immoral, sinful thoughts? For hundreds of years, researchers and scientists have debated causes of the Black Death. Many continue to believe the plague was caused by fleas from rats, but new evidence suggests the disease might be airborne (1). Regardless of cause, today’s population is at risk for an epidemic similar to the Black Death. 

History

       The origins of the Black Death can be traced back to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia in the 1320s (Gregg). It spread out in all directions, specifically eastward to China (1). Frequent ship trade during the Middle Ages meant European traders sailed the Black Sea region regularly. Historical documents show a group of sailors from Genoa docked at the port in Sicily in October of 1347 where they were fresh from a voyage to China (1). Chinese goods loaded by sailors on board the ships were covered with bacterium yersinia pestis, an infectious bacteria found on rats (1). Suddenly, the Black Death had arrived in Europe!

        From Sicily, the plague spread at an alarming rate. This caused panic in the Italian population as the plague spread farther and farther north (Hirst). Wherever trade routes existed, the plague followed. The Black Death reached France shortly after it swept through Italy (1). England felt its effects in September of 1348 (1). By the end of 1348, Germany, France, England, Italy, and “the low countries were engulfed” with the plague (1). Norway was infected in 1349, and Eastern European countries began to fall victim during the early 1350s (1). Russia was infected during 1351 (1). By the end of the Black Death’s run in Europe, one third of all people in the infected areas had died (1).

       The people of Europe did not know that the Black Death was the result of a microscopic, rod-shaped bacillus bacterium (Herlihy). Rodents, especially common rats, are very susceptible to infection from the bacteria. These rats are also host to parasitic fleas, which live off of the blood of other animals. The flea is not affected by the bacterium, yet still carries it in the blood extracted from the rat host in its digestive tract (1). The flea's ability to carry the disease without death makes it a perfect host of transfer from organism to organism (1). When these rats inhabit urban areas or boats in order to live off of stored food supplies, they bring the fleas with them. Fleas leave the bodies of rats, which die shortly from the disease, and move on to a new host—humans. Once an infected flea bites a human, infected blood from the rat is introduced to the healthy blood of the human, and the bacteria spreads (1). Death occurs in less than a week for humans.

        There are several possible causes of the plague. First, the plague was caused by the bubonic infection (Matterer). The underlying argument is that the disease was caused by a pathogen that is responsible for an epidemic in China in 1865 (1). The bacterium that caused the disease is identified

as Yersinia pestis (1). The mechanism of 

transmission of this bacterium was through

 fleas (1). These fleas had their mid-guts 

obstructed by replications of Yersinia pestis

after feeding on the infected host (Moneckea, Moneckeb and 

Moneckec 2009, 583-87).

The second cause is known as the “Malthusian crisis: the deterioration of social and living conditions and the failure of agriculture” (Moneckea et al). Lack of bathing, bad hygiene, poor nutrition, and social interactions all played significant roles in the spread of the Black Death. This is because there was a population

explosion in Europe 

coupled with dire 

living conditions that 

resulted in famine 

across Europe (584-7).

The third cause of the Bubonic Plague is human to human contact (Rettner). The possibility that warm blooded individuals passed the disease through infected blood, feces, or mucous, or the possibility that the disease was airborne, is currently being debated and researched (1).

Regardless of its cause, the effect was the Black Death killed one-third of the population in Europe during the Medieval Ages and caused changes in societal structures (“History of Western Civilization: The Black Death”).

Effects on Society

       As far as social economics, the Black Death had devastating results. First, the continent was on the brink of wars and famines. The governments of most European nations did not have emergency plans for the Black Death (Aberth 2001, 78-79). This was because scholars could not explain how the disease spread or what caused the disease. Medieval Europe was governed by monarchs. They put into place measures that: “outlawed exports of foods, set price controls, and damned black market speculations” (Aberth 2001, 78-79). Rules were strict; even fishing was outlawed. Economic restrictions sent Europe into a tailspin. Countries, like England and Scotland on the brink of wars, were unable to buy grain from France. Travel by sea was too risky due to pirates. The plague couldn’t have hit at a worse time since Europe was in the beginning stages of an economic recession (Aberth 2001, 78-79).

       Also affected by the plague was the agriculture economy. When the epidemic ended, peasants demanded higher wages for their services. In England, “wages rose from 12% to 28% during the plague period” (Hatcher 1977, 122). From 1340 to 1360, wages rose again by around twenty percent (122). Another economic impact of the plague is that the supply of gold and silver increased (122). This, in turn, caused inflation in prices, which reduced the purchasing power of most people in Europe (122). This made the life of peasant and wage laborers more difficult than before the plague (122).

       Another economic effect of the plague related to agriculture was that most lords lost the services of their peasants, who went to work at places that offered them better jobs. This led to the neglect of around 60% of the land in England (Hatcher 1977, 122). The reduction of the labor force increased the bargaining powers of peasants and wage earners (122). Lords and nobles “lost over 60%” of their workforce (122). Lands that once were filled with workers were now untended (Benedictow 105). Towns were largely altered by the plague. An estimated 1300 villages vanished due to Black Death (105). This was because villages sat closely together, and people shared animals, plus there was lack of hygiene, such as bathing, and poor diets (Rowling).  When animals bedded with people, diseases spread, and whole families died as a result (Dunn).

        The commercial economy was also affected by the plague. It brought about a shortage of labor in the cities. This led to a resurgence of the slave trade in Africa and the Mediterranean (Benedictow 2004, 105). Female slaves entered domestic services while male slaves worked in the countryside.

 Thus, supply and demand for goods was affected, which meant more jobs for workers who put money into the economy. The standard of living increased for most people. For example, one of the industries greatly affected by Black Death was the textile industry. After the plague, England flooded the market with low quality materials, so the textile industry grow rapidly (105). As the demand for goods increased, producers did not have enough workers to supply the demand (105).

                 Religion and social interactions were drastically changed by the Black Death (Dunn). There were vicious attacks on Jews, lepers, and other outsiders accused of poisoning the air and water in Europe (1). People with skin diseases faced persecution. Also, traditional beliefs of religion were greatly weakened. Many people believed that God was punishing them. Religious leaders were distrusted because they could not cure the deadly disease (1). This led some to attend black mass, a form of devil worship (1). In addition, the Black Death affected the arts, and artists turned to painting morbid scenes of plague and death (1). Music ceased to be played, and social functions and interactions were strictly forbidden. Even in the Medieval Ages, gaiety and humor during times of disease, death, and widespread panic was highly unacceptable.

Examples of the Black Death

        Symptoms for those afflicted with Bubonic Plague were painful, and usually deadly. They included: sudden onset of fever, headache, chills, weakness, one or more swollen, tender 

and painful lymph nodes (called buboes) (“Plague: Symptoms”).

But, “what was it like for a victim of the plague” (Snell)?

It started with a headache. Then chills and fever, which left the victim exhausted and prostrate. Maybe he experienced nausea, vomiting, back pain, soreness in his arms and legs. Perhaps bright light was too bright to stand. Within a day or two, the swellings appeared. They were hard, painful, burning lumps on his neck, under his arms, on his inner thighs. Soon they turned black, split open, and began to ooze pus and blood. They may have grown to the size of an orange…After the lumps appeared, he would start to bleed internally. There would be blood in his urine, blood in his stool, and blood puddling under his skin, resulting in black boils and spots all over his body. Everything that came out of his body smelled utterly revolting. He would suffer great pain before he breathed his last. And he would die barely a week after he first contracted the disease. (Snell)

Boccaccio 14th Century Poet

Historical documents uncovered throughout time provide horrific accounts of life during the plague. Examples are Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Daniel Defoe’s A Journal of the Plague Year, which gave vivid recollections of life during one of the worst epidemics in history. But, it was Giovanni Boccaccio, who lived during the Black Death and penned The Decameron, Vol. I, that captured a harrowing account of the disease and death:

The symptoms were not the same as in the East, where a gush of blood from the nose was the plain sign of inevitable death; but it began both in men and women with certain swellings in the groin or under the armpit. They grew to the size of a small apple or an egg, more or less, and were vulgarly called tumours. In a short space of time these tumours spread from the two parts named all over the body. Soon after this the symptoms changed and black or purple spots appeared on the arms or thighs or any other part of the body, sometimes a few large ones, sometimes many little ones. These spots were a certain sign of death, just as the original tumour had been and still remained… (“The Black Death, 1348”)

Dance of Macabre or Death

Boccaccio descriptions of a person who suffered from the plague were descriptive and to the point. The Fourteenth Century writer continued on to explain conditions of middle class and lowly peasants, along with poor sanitary conditions, which led to the spread of the Bubonic Plague:

Most of them remained in their houses, either through poverty or in hopes of safety, and fell sick by thousands. Since they received no care and attention, almost all of them died. Many ended their lives in the streets both at night and during the day; and many others who died in their houses were only known to be dead because the neighbours smelled their decaying bodies. Dead bodies filled every corner. Most of them were treated in the same manner by the survivors, who were more concerned to get rid of their rotting bodies than moved by charity towards the dead. (“The Black Death, 1348”)

For artists and writers, the Bubonic Plague provided new materials filled with horrific images and words of death, destruction, and suffering. One of these works was the famous childhood song “Ring Around the Rosie”, which included the phrase “all fall down” due to death from the plague. For victims of all ages, the plague typically resulted in death.

Evidential Support

      Over the past couple of years, debates have surfaced over what caused the Medieval Ages epidemic of Bubonic Plague. Dr. Barney Sloane, a historian, believes the disease was spread not by fleas and rats but rather “it had to be person to person due to the speed by which it spread…” (Bates). Sloane’s research suggests that rats should have died from the plague similar to humans (1). Yet, no mass graves of rat bones have been unearthed; therefore, it’s likely that there was no Bubonic Plague (1). Also, the disease spread quickly through Europe even during winter months when fleas and rats are dormant (1). Sloane bases his findings on research from Dr. James Wood and a team of scientists from Penn State University (1).

Dr. Wood and his colleagues studied documents and findings from the Medieval Ages to come up with their results: “These records indicate that the spread of the Black Death was more rapid than we formerly believed. This disease appears to spread too rapidly among humans to be something that must first be established in wild rodent populations, like bubonic plague” (Bates). However, the Penn State University team’s research concludes that perhaps the Medieval Age disease mutated from its original Bubonic Plague form into one that is spread through human-to-human interaction (1).

Is the world at risk for another Black Death, or is the possibility of such an epidemic absurd? Most historians continue to support the theory that the Bubonic Plague become an epidemic through the spread of fleas on rats from ships that were docked in Sicily and originated from China (Marks). The disease spread quickly due to poor hygiene and living conditions. Yet, there are new cases of Bubonic Plague yearly. In July, 2014, in Yumon, China, the death of native man who somehow contacted Bubonic Plague prompted officials to seal off the city of 30,000 residents to the outside world (Rettner).  In 2015, cases of Bubonic Plague were reported in Colorado (1). Fortunately, today, Bubonic Plague is treated with antibiotics, and less than “5,000 cases of plague per year worldwide” occur (1). However, the threat of another epidemic like the Black Death almost become a reality with the recent Ebola virus outbreak.

 Recently, mass graves of bones from people who died of Bubonic Plague during the Medieval Ages were discovered (Rettner). Soon, medical testing will reveal new, lifesaving information that will put an end to the question of the disease’s origin, its causes, and how it spread so quickly through European countries. Scientists’ goal, however, is to stop all epidemics and to prevent future deaths from Bubonic Plague. 

Absurdity and the Plague

Albert Camus, an anarchist and an atheist, believed that it was impossible for man to “rationalize an irrational universe” (Kershaw). He stated religion was “philosophically absurd”,

which resulted in his philosophy of the absurd (1). To the people of the Medieval Ages, the Black Death was absurd; it was irrational, and it struck randomly and resulted in death. Some people rationalized it was possible the disease was a punishment for their immoral, sinful ways of living. Although Camus would have been saddened by the death of so many citizens, he would have been pleased to see that people of the Fourteenth Century questioned their religious beliefs, along with the fairness and justness of their almighty God.

Camus’ stressed that government and society imposed too many laws and rules and restricted individual freedom and rights, but could this have negative effects on an epidemic such as the Black Plague? What if magistrates had not limited social interactions and travel during the 14th Century, would even more people would have contracted the plague and died? Without social and travel restrictions, civilization might have been completely wiped out.

However, Camus would have rejoiced at the peasants’ revolt for higher wages, which meant the lowest class of people questioned the ruling party’s laws and rules imposed upon them. England’s outcome was one Camus would have celebrated since it eliminated the feudal system, restored jobs and wages, and resulted in an era known as Renaissance, or rebirth.

Conclusion

            The Black Death killed “1.5 million people out of an estimated 4.0 million people” in Medieval England (“The Black Death of 1348 to 1350”). No one was immune from the disease. Scientific research will soon reveal whether the plague was caused by fleas from rats or if it was airborne and spread through human-to-human interaction.

In today’s time when people travel worldwide by many modes of transportation, it is possible for society to be at risk of another epidemic. Even though it may border on absurdity to fear an epidemic, we must face the fact that diseases, such as the Bubonic Plague and Ebola virus, remain present. This means our society is at risk of another epidemic.

Works Cited

Bates, Claire. “Black Death backtrack: Don't blame the rats, the plague was 'spread by PEOPLE”'. Daily Mail, U.K. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2027347/Black-Death-backtrack-Dont-blame-rats-plague-spread-PEOPLE.html (2011).

Dunn, John M.Life During the Black Death Lucent books inc. 2000. 

Gregg, C. T. Plague: An Ancient Disease in the Twentieth Century, revised ed.; University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque, 1985, 1978.

Herlihy, D. The Black Death and the Transfor-mation of the West; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 1997.

Hirst, L. F. The Conquest of Plague: A Study in the Evolution of Epidemiology; Clarendon Press: Oxford, U.K., 1953.

“History of Western Civilization: The Black Death”. http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/ plague/index.html.

Marks, Geoffrey J. The Medieval Plague; the Black Death of the Middle Ages. Doubleday, New York 1971. 

Matterer, J. L. The Pestilence Tyme. www.godecookery.com/plague/plague.htm.

 “Plague: Symptoms”. Center for Disease Control. http://www.cdc.gov/plague/symptoms/.  (2012).

Rowling, Marjorie. Life in Medieval Times Perigee, New York 1979.

Snell, Melissa. “Death Defined”. About Education. http://historymedren.about.com/od/theblackdeath/a/death_defined.htm (2014).

Rettner, Rachael. “Chinese Officials Seal Off ‘Plague’ City, Puzzling US Experts”. Live Science. 23 July 2014.

“The Black Death, 1348”. EyeWitness. To History. www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2001).