Spring 2016

Spring 2016
(All Works Cited Posted with Conclusions)

Tuesday, January 19, 2016

The Black Death by Jonathon Tull (Example Essay)

Introduction
       A sudden itch on your arm reveals a red, rosy ring. Your heart beats quickly because it’s a symptom of the most deadly disease of the Fourteenth Century—the Black Death. The Bubonic Plague killed “1.5 million people out of an estimated 4.0 million people” in Medieval England, and it’s about to claim it’s next victim—you (“The Black Death of 1348 to 1350”). There’s no way to avoid the horrific symptoms that will follow: lumps in the armpits or groin, decaying black spots on 
parts of the body, chills, fever, excruciating pain, and within three days death (Boccaccio 1). Where did you contract the disease—from breathing fowl air of friends who were infected, from close contact with farm animals, or from immoral, sinful thoughts? For hundreds of years, researchers and scientists have debated causes of the Black Death. Many continue to believe the plague was caused by fleas from rats, but new evidence suggests the disease might be airborne (1). Regardless of cause, today’s population is at risk for an epidemic similar to the Black Death. 


History
       The origins of the Black Death can be traced back to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia in the 1320s (Gregg). It spread out in all directions, specifically eastward to China (1). Frequent ship trade during the Middle Ages meant European traders sailed the Black Sea region regularly. Historical documents show a group of sailors from Genoa docked at the port in Sicily in October of 1347 where they were fresh from a voyage to China (1). Chinese goods loaded by sailors on board the ships were covered with bacterium yersinia pestis, an infectious bacteria found on rats (1). Suddenly, the Black Death had arrived in Europe!

        From Sicily, the plague spread at an alarming rate. This caused panic in the Italian population as the plague spread farther and farther north (Hirst). Wherever trade routes existed, the plague followed. The Black Death reached France shortly after it swept through Italy (1). England felt its effects in September of 1348 (1). By the end of 1348, Germany, France, England, Italy, and “the low countries were engulfed” with the plague (1). Norway was infected in 1349, and Eastern European countries began to fall victim during the early 1350s (1). Russia was infected during 1351 (1). By the end of the Black Death’s run in Europe, one third of all people in the infected areas had died (1).
       The people of Europe did not know that the Black Death was the result of a microscopic, rod-shaped bacillus bacterium (Herlihy). Rodents, especially common rats, are very susceptible to infection from the bacteria. These rats are also host to parasitic fleas, which live off of the blood of other animals. The flea is not affected by the bacterium, yet still carries it in the blood extracted from the rat host in its digestive tract (1). The flea's ability to carry the disease without death makes it a perfect host of transfer from organism to organism (1). When these rats inhabit urban areas or boats in order to live off of stored food supplies, they bring the fleas with them. Fleas leave the bodies of rats, which die shortly from the disease, and move on to a new host—humans. Once an infected flea bites a human, infected blood from the rat is introduced to the healthy blood of the human, and the bacteria spreads (1). Death occurs in less than a week for humans.
        There are several possible causes of the plague. First, the plague was caused by the bubonic infection (Matterer). The underlying argument is that the disease was caused by a pathogen that is responsible for an epidemic in China in 1865 (1). The bacterium that caused the disease is identified
as Yersinia pestis (1). The mechanism of 

transmission of this bacterium was through

 fleas (1). These fleas had their mid-guts 

obstructed by replications of Yersinia pestis

after feeding on the infected host (Moneckea, Moneckeb and 

Moneckec 2009, 583-87).
The second cause is known as the “Malthusian crisis: the deterioration of social and living conditions and the failure of agriculture” (Moneckea et al). Lack of bathing, bad hygiene, poor nutrition, and social interactions all played significant roles in the spread of the Black Death. This is because there was a population
explosion in Europe 

coupled with dire 

living conditions that 

resulted in famine 

across Europe (584-7).
The third cause of the Bubonic Plague is human to human contact (Rettner). The possibility that warm blooded individuals passed the disease through infected blood, feces, or mucous, or the possibility that the disease was airborne, is currently being debated and researched (1).
Regardless of its cause, the effect was the Black Death killed one-third of the population in Europe during the Medieval Ages and caused changes in societal structures (“History of Western Civilization: The Black Death”).

Effects on Society

       As far as social economics, the Black Death had devastating results. First, the continent was on the brink of wars and famines. The governments of most European nations did not have emergency plans for the Black Death (Aberth 2001, 78-79). This was because scholars could not explain how the disease spread or what caused the disease. Medieval Europe was governed by monarchs. They put into place measures that: “outlawed exports of foods, set price controls, and damned black market speculations” (Aberth 2001, 78-79). Rules were strict; even fishing was outlawed. Economic restrictions sent Europe into a tailspin. Countries, like England and Scotland on the brink of wars, were unable to buy grain from France. Travel by sea was too risky due to pirates. The plague couldn’t have hit at a worse time since Europe was in the beginning stages of an economic recession (Aberth 2001, 78-79).

       Also affected by the plague was the agriculture economy. When the epidemic ended, peasants demanded higher wages for their services. In England, “wages rose from 12% to 28% during the plague period” (Hatcher 1977, 122). From 1340 to 1360, wages rose again by around twenty percent (122). Another economic impact of the plague is that the supply of gold and silver increased (122). This, in turn, caused inflation in prices, which reduced the purchasing power of most people in Europe (122). This made the life of peasant and wage laborers more difficult than before the plague (122).
       Another economic effect of the plague related to agriculture was that most lords lost the services of their peasants, who went to work at places that offered them better jobs. This led to the neglect of around 60% of the land in England (Hatcher 1977, 122). The reduction of the labor force increased the bargaining powers of peasants and wage earners (122). Lords and nobles “lost over 60%” of their workforce (122). Lands that once were filled with workers were now untended (Benedictow 105). Towns were largely altered by the plague. An estimated 1300 villages vanished due to Black Death (105). This was because villages sat closely together, and people shared animals, plus there was lack of hygiene, such as bathing, and poor diets (Rowling).  When animals bedded with people, diseases spread, and whole families died as a result (Dunn).
        The commercial economy was also affected by the plague. It brought about a shortage of labor in the cities. This led to a resurgence of the slave trade in Africa and the Mediterranean (Benedictow 2004, 105). Female slaves entered domestic services while male slaves worked in the countryside.
 Thus, supply and demand for goods was affected, which meant more jobs for workers who put money into the economy. The standard of living increased for most people. For example, one of the industries greatly affected by Black Death was the textile industry. After the plague, England flooded the market with low quality materials, so the textile industry grow rapidly (105). As the demand for goods increased, producers did not have enough workers to supply the demand (105).
                 Religion and social interactions were drastically changed by the Black Death (Dunn). There were vicious attacks on Jews, lepers, and other outsiders accused of poisoning the air and water in Europe (1). People with skin diseases faced persecution. Also, traditional beliefs of religion were greatly weakened. Many people believed that God was punishing them. Religious leaders were distrusted because they could not cure the deadly disease (1). This led some to attend black mass, a form of devil worship (1). In addition, the Black Death affected the arts, and artists turned to painting morbid scenes of plague and death (1). Music ceased to be played, and social functions and interactions were strictly forbidden. Even in the Medieval Ages, gaiety and humor during times of disease, death, and widespread panic was highly unacceptable.

Examples of the Black Death

        Symptoms for those afflicted with Bubonic Plague were painful, and usually deadly. They included: sudden onset of feverheadache, chills, weakness, one or more swollen, tender 

and painful lymph nodes (called buboes) (“Plague: Symptoms”).



But, “what was it like for a victim of the plague” (Snell)?
It started with a headache. Then chills and fever, which left the victim exhausted and prostrate. Maybe he experienced nausea, vomiting, back pain, soreness in his arms and legs. Perhaps bright light was too bright to stand. Within a day or two, the swellings appeared. They were hard, painful, burning lumps on his neck, under his arms, on his inner thighs. Soon they turned black, split open, and began to ooze pus and blood. They may have grown to the size of an orange…After the lumps appeared, he would start to bleed internally. There would be blood in his urine, blood in his stool, and blood puddling under his skin, resulting in black boils and spots all over his body. Everything that came out of his body smelled utterly revolting. He would suffer great pain before he breathed his last. And he would die barely a week after he first contracted the disease. (Snell)


Boccaccio 14th Century Poet
Historical documents uncovered throughout time provide horrific accounts of life during the plague. Examples are Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Daniel Defoe’s A Journal of the Plague Year, which gave vivid recollections of life during one of the worst epidemics in history. But, it was Giovanni Boccaccio, who lived during the Black Death and penned The Decameron, Vol. I, that captured a harrowing account of the disease and death:
The symptoms were not the same as in the East, where a gush of blood from the nose was the plain sign of inevitable death; but it began both in men and women with certain swellings in the groin or under the armpit. They grew to the size of a small apple or an egg, more or less, and were vulgarly called tumours. In a short space of time these tumours spread from the two parts named all over the body. Soon after this the symptoms changed and black or purple spots appeared on the arms or thighs or any other part of the body, sometimes a few large ones, sometimes many little ones. These spots were a certain sign of death, just as the original tumour had been and still remained… (“The Black Death, 1348”)


Dance of Macabre or Death
Boccaccio descriptions of a person who suffered from the plague were descriptive and to the point. The Fourteenth Century writer continued on to explain conditions of middle class and lowly peasants, along with poor sanitary conditions, which led to the spread of the Bubonic Plague:
Most of them remained in their houses, either through poverty or in hopes of safety, and fell sick by thousands. Since they received no care and attention, almost all of them died. Many ended their lives in the streets both at night and during the day; and many others who died in their houses were only known to be dead because the neighbours smelled their decaying bodies. Dead bodies filled every corner. Most of them were treated in the same manner by the survivors, who were more concerned to get rid of their rotting bodies than moved by charity towards the dead. (“The Black Death, 1348”)

For artists and writers, the Bubonic Plague provided new materials filled with horrific images and words of death, destruction, and suffering. One of these works was the famous childhood song “Ring Around the Rosie”, which included the phrase “all fall down” due to death from the plague. For victims of all ages, the plague typically resulted in death.

Evidential Support
      Over the past couple of years, debates have surfaced over what caused the Medieval Ages epidemic of Bubonic Plague. Dr. Barney Sloane, a historian, believes the disease was spread not by fleas and rats but rather “it had to be person to person due to the speed by which it spread…” (Bates). Sloane’s research suggests that rats should have died from the plague similar to humans (1). Yet, no mass graves of rat bones have been unearthed; therefore, it’s likely that there was no Bubonic Plague (1). Also, the disease spread quickly through Europe even during winter months when fleas and rats are dormant (1). Sloane bases his findings on research from Dr. James Wood and a team of scientists from Penn State University (1).
Dr. Wood and his colleagues studied documents and findings from the Medieval Ages to come up with their results: “These records indicate that the spread of the Black Death was more rapid than we formerly believed. This disease appears to spread too rapidly among humans to be something that must first be established in wild rodent populations, like bubonic plague” (Bates). However, the Penn State University team’s research concludes that perhaps the Medieval Age disease mutated from its original Bubonic Plague form into one that is spread through human-to-human interaction (1).

Is the world at risk for another Black Death, or is the possibility of such an epidemic absurd? Most historians continue to support the theory that the Bubonic Plague become an epidemic through the spread of fleas on rats from ships that were docked in Sicily and originated from China (Marks). The disease spread quickly due to poor hygiene and living conditions. Yet, there are new cases of Bubonic Plague yearly. In July, 2014, in Yumon, China, the death of native man who somehow contacted Bubonic Plague prompted officials to seal off the city of 30,000 residents to the outside world (Rettner).  In 2015, cases of Bubonic Plague were reported in Colorado (1). Fortunately, today, Bubonic Plague is treated with antibiotics, and less than “5,000 cases of plague per year worldwide” occur (1). However, the threat of another epidemic like the Black Death almost become a reality with the recent Ebola virus outbreak.
 Recently, mass graves of bones from people who died of Bubonic Plague during the Medieval Ages were discovered (Rettner). Soon, medical testing will reveal new, lifesaving information that will put an end to the question of the disease’s origin, its causes, and how it spread so quickly through European countries. Scientists’ goal, however, is to stop all epidemics and to prevent future deaths from Bubonic Plague. 

Absurdity and the Plague
Albert Camus, an anarchist and an atheist, believed that it was impossible for man to “rationalize an irrational universe” (Kershaw). He stated religion was “philosophically absurd”,


which resulted in his philosophy of the absurd (1). To the people of the Medieval Ages, the Black Death was absurd; it was irrational, and it struck randomly and resulted in death. Some people rationalized it was possible the disease was a punishment for their immoral, sinful ways of living. Although Camus would have been saddened by the death of so many citizens, he would have been pleased to see that people of the Fourteenth Century questioned their religious beliefs, along with the fairness and justness of their almighty God.
Camus’ stressed that government and society imposed too many laws and rules and restricted individual freedom and rights, but could this have negative effects on an epidemic such as the Black Plague? What if magistrates had not limited social interactions and travel during the 14th Century, would even more people would have contracted the plague and died? Without social and travel restrictions, civilization might have been completely wiped out.


However, Camus would have rejoiced at the peasants’ revolt for higher wages, which meant the lowest class of people questioned the ruling party’s laws and rules imposed upon them. England’s outcome was one Camus would have celebrated since it eliminated the feudal system, restored jobs and wages, and resulted in an era known as Renaissance, or rebirth.

Conclusion
            The Black Death killed “1.5 million people out of an estimated 4.0 million people” in Medieval England (“The Black Death of 1348 to 1350”). No one was immune from the disease. Scientific research will soon reveal whether the plague was caused by fleas from rats or if it was airborne and spread through human-to-human interaction.
In today’s time when people travel worldwide by many modes of transportation, it is possible for society to be at risk of another epidemic. Even though it may border on absurdity to fear an epidemic, we must face the fact that diseases, such as the Bubonic Plague and Ebola virus, remain present. This means our society is at risk of another epidemic.





 
Works Cited

Bates, Claire. “Black Death backtrack: Don't blame the rats, the plague was 'spread by PEOPLE”'. Daily Mail, U.K. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2027347/Black-Death-backtrack-Dont-blame-rats-plague-spread-PEOPLE.html (2011).

Dunn, John M.Life During the Black Death Lucent books inc. 2000. 

Gregg, C. T. Plague: An Ancient Disease in the Twentieth Century, revised ed.; University of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque, 1985, 1978.

Herlihy, D. The Black Death and the Transfor-mation of the West; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 1997.

Hirst, L. F. The Conquest of Plague: A Study in the Evolution of Epidemiology; Clarendon Press: Oxford, U.K., 1953.

“History of Western Civilization: The Black Death”. http://history.idbsu.edu/westciv/ plague/index.html.

Marks, Geoffrey J. The Medieval Plague; the Black Death of the Middle Ages. Doubleday, New York 1971. 

Matterer, J. L. The Pestilence Tyme. www.godecookery.com/plague/plague.htm.
 “Plague: Symptoms”. Center for Disease Control. http://www.cdc.gov/plague/symptoms/.  (2012).

Rowling, Marjorie. Life in Medieval Times Perigee, New York 1979.

Snell, Melissa. “Death Defined”. About Education. http://historymedren.about.com/od/theblackdeath/a/death_defined.htm (2014).
Rettner, Rachael. “Chinese Officials Seal Off ‘Plague’ City, Puzzling US Experts”. Live Science. 23 July 2014.

“The Black Death, 1348”. EyeWitness. To History. www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2001).



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